Health Patterns: The Belanger Family Essay

Marjorie Gordon in 1987 recommended functional health patterns as a model for launching a comprehensive nursing data base. The eleven groupings make possible a methodical and systemized approach to data collection, and facilitate the nurse to establish the following characteristics of health and human function. A detailed assessment positions the groundwork to promote health and wellbeing within the family. Gordon’s eleven functional health designs include the following, values and beliefs, health perception and health management, nutrition and elimination, activity and exercise, cognition and perception, sleep and rest, self-perception and self-concept, roles and relationships, sexuality and reproduction, coping and stress tolerance, values and belief. This document will depict the health patterns of the Belanger family by means of the specific family-focused questions to each of the groupings above (Koshar, 2013). The Belanger family is comprised of Aaron the father is 28 years of age and Erin the mother is 27 years of age. The couple have two son’s Tanin, who is the eldest of 5 and Brent who is 2 months old. The mother is a stay at home mom and wife. The father is currently employed for the Hurst Fire Department as fire engineer and paramedic where he has served the Hurst community for 3 years. The couple has been married for 5 years. Summary For Each Functional Health Pattern 1. Health Perception-Health Management Pattern When the couple were asked of their overall health perception and health management they both agreed they were very healthy. The family could distinguish a primary health care physician and conveyed that each member has maintained annual physical exams. No one in the nuclear family admits to taking medications on a daily basis. Family history revealed lupus on the mother’s side, and diabetes, coronary artery disease on the father’s side. Aaron, the father has suffered from ulcerative colitis at the age of 15 years old and was treated surgically by way of a total colectomy. He currently exhibits no complications or problems with the reconstruction and lives a normal quality of life. Both mother and father report exercising and eating fresh fruits and vegetables to maintain their health. 2. Nutritional Metabolic Pattern Mom reports on a typical day consuming large amounts of protein such as eggs, tuna, turkey sandwiches and chicken with vegetables. The family reveals that times vary because of the father’s shift work and the new baby at home but typically they eat four times a day. Both Mother and father reveals they consume at least half their weight in ounces of water each day as recommended by the American College of Sports Medicine (Mack, 2013). 3. Elimination Pattern Evaluation of the elimination patterns did not disclose any changes in bowel movements or habits on the mother’s side but father revealed elimination at least three to four loose bowel movements every day due to the reconstruction of his colon. No urinary difficulties noted. The father revealed that he follows up with a colorectal specialist as needed for any further problems. 4. Activity-Exercise Pattern The couple engages in physical activity three to four times a week. The father has opportunities to increase his activity as a firefighter and participates in weight lifting and running with his coworkers. Mom is limited due to her 2 month old but expresses she performs yoga and walks daily with her children. Mom also performs housework as a part of her physical activity. 5. Cognitive-Perceptual Pattern There is no deficits in short or long term memory, vision is good and no one wears glasses or hearing aids. The couple finds decision making together easy and while the mother expresses she is an auditory learner the father discloses that he retains best visually. 6. Sleep Rest Pattern The eldest boy 5 goes to bed at the same time every night. The father and mother follow after the 5 year old goes to sleep. Currently both parents take turns when the 2 month old awakens during the night. The parents have broken patterns of sleep due to the baby and have both revealed that they are fatigued when they rise in the morning. Also the father is a firefighter and has broken patterns of sleep due to his shift work. 7. Role-Relationship Pattern The couple revealed the strong relationship bond with their parents family even though the mother’s extended is approximately 3 hours away. She has disclosed that she misses her extended family and drives at least once a month to visit. The couple does have close friends nearby but because of the limitations of having a baby at this time they are unable to go on getaways with their friends. They both stated they are not connected to any organized social groups at this time. 8. Sexuality-Reproductive Pattern This specific open-end question finished as a closed ended question due to the personal morals of the couple. I limited my discussion on this particular subject to respect their values and standards. Both the father and mother did convey that their sexuality was normal and healthy. From their perspective there were no changes or problems in their relations. 9. Pattern of Coping and Stress Tolerance Both father and mother expressed that money was a contributing factor to their large stressors in life. They both state that it is difficult for them to raise on family on one income. The father is particularly concerned and has recently written out a budget for necessary items that are needed in the household. The couple together has expressed that they reduce their stressors by communicating to one another and limiting their spending on only necessities. Communication is important to both of them as they rely on each other’s love and strength to progress through problems and issues that may arise. They both admit to drinking two alcoholic beverages every night before they go to bed. 10. Pattern of Values and Beliefs When asking the family what particular religion of culture, they expressed their practice of Christianity. They attend church on Sundays but do not participate in any other religious activities. Religion is important in their lives and the family takes comfort in prayer when difficulties arise. Finally, when asked what their future plans hold they articulated that raising their kids and living a peaceful life is what the family strives for. Nursing Diagnoses demonstrated by the Belanger family under the Health Perception- Health Management Wellness Diagnoses and Activity-Exercise Pattern included Health-Seeking Behaviors and Readiness for Enhanced Self-Care Activities. These two findings were revealed by the eating and exercise habits of the couple. The risk diagnoses that were revealed due to drinking 2 alcoholic beverages every night were disturbed sleep pattern and sleep deprivation. The current research published on Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, displays that while a bedcap may get you to doze off you’re more likely to awaken during the night and not feel rested the following morning( Azalavitz, 2013). In conclusion, Gordon’s guide offered a framework for assessment of the Belanger Family including all eleven patterns and a thorough assessment was completed along with two nursing diagnoses. Gordon’s influence was effective in providing a framework by which potential problems were identified in effort to promote health and wellbeing. References Azalavitz, M. (2013). Sleep it Off: How Alcohol Affects sleep Quality. Retrieved from http://healthland. time. com/2013/02/08/sleeping-it-off-how-alcohol-affects-sleep-quality/ Koshar, J. (2013). Women’s Health & Illness in the Expanded Family. Retrieved from http://www. sonoma. edu/users/k/koshar/n340/N345_Gordon_FHP. html Mack, G. W. (2013). Dehydration and Aging. Retrieved from http://www. acsm. org/docs/current-comments/dehydrationandaging. pdf

The Simpsons Are Sociologically Savvy: a Postmodernist Perspective

The Simpsons are Sociologically Savvy: a Postmodernist Perspective Using The Simpsons, a long-running American animated continuing series, as a case study I will analyse the links between audiences, production and text in the creation of meaning. Using a triangulated approach of close textual reading, and theoretical models of post-modernism and queer theory to question the role of agenda setting in contemporary society, I will identify particular mechanisms of agenda setting within this example. The Simpsons, described by Paul Cantor (1999) is a â€Å"postmodern re-creation of the first generation family sit-com† (p738) which can be used effectively to illustrate innovative and radical themes and encourages critical thinking. David Arnold (2001) describes The Simpsons as â€Å"an irresponsible text, one rich in associations and connotations [†¦] a self-parodic, self-referential pastiche of previous texts† (p264). I will endeavour to show that despite the fact that The Simpsons is associated with cartoons, which in their very nature are assumed to be childish and frivolous, it is because of all of the above associations that the postmodern Simpsons are useful as a pedagogical tool (Hobbs, 1998) and can be used to teach adults and children various sociological issues including sexual identities and hegemony. The Simpsons lends itself to be a vehicle of a ‘media-virus’ which according to Douglas Rushkoff (1994) can carry [the] â€Å"revolutionary message conveyed in an apparently innocent, neutral package† (cited in Irwin et Al 2001 p254). Such programmes appear to have proven to be the most acceptable and accessible spaces to show such subjects as gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender (glbt) identities because of their separation from reality. Arnold (2001) claims that the ridiculousness of the funny yellow looking characters who pop up on your television and look almost human, but with crazy storylines and unbelievable un-human like behaviours â€Å"increase their ability to function as satiric signifiers† (p262). It’s because of their unfeasibility, their â€Å"lack of seriousness† that Diane Raymond (2003 cited in Dines & Humez) maintains allows programmes like The Simpsons to â€Å"†¦play with themes under cover of humour where those themes might be too volatile or even too didactic for another sort of audience† (p101). The Simpsons creators and writers rely on the history of other shows and they take from them all the best titbits rewarding their viewers according to Rushkoff (2004) with â€Å"a-ha moments† or â€Å"pattern recognition† (p296). Whether it is Maggie in ‘A Streetcar Named Marge’ (1992, 9F18) attempting to rescue her dummy-tit at Springfield’s day-care centre to the theme tune of The Great Escape by Elmer Bernstein. Or when Homer arrives to pick her up some of the babies are precariously perched and watch on, which to the media literate is an obvious spoof of The Birds a classic Hitchcock movie from 1963. The wedding scene from The Graduate is spoofed in ‘One fish, two fish, blowfish’ (1991, 7F11) where Homer bangs on the living room window and shouts â€Å"Marge† at the top of his voice. ‘Lisa’s Substitute’ (1991, SF19), is where we see yet another classic scene from the The Graduate, where the substitute teacher is seen at the front of the class through Mrs Krabappel’s leg which is hitched up on the desk and Bart’s teacher says those famous words â€Å"Mrs. Krabappel, you're trying to seduce me. Some of the audience, children moreover adults may see the ridiculousness of the scenes as ‘funny’ but may not see the more hidden intertextual message due to their time spent viewing media texts. However David Buckingham (2001) claims that children are more active, and sophisticated users [†¦] that they see much more television and are able to detect and decipher the â€Å"formal codes and conventions about genre and narrative, and about the production process† (cited in Barker and Petely 2001). These pieces of intertextual fragmented texts have different connotations to different ‘readers’. For example in The Graduate the storyline, for the chief protagonist, was about the coming of age and losing his virginity and the power it gave him, this ‘revolutionary message’ would not be available in prime-time viewing unless such a vehicle as The Simpsons made it accessible through its animation. Ironically The Simpsons was created to be a ‘bridging device’ for The Tracy Ullman Show to cross from the main parts of the show into adverts (Rushkoff 2004 p295). The Simpsons became more popular than the host show and Matt Groening the show’s creator was offered $10m and a 13 episode series at FOX Television (Ibid p295). According to Allen Larson (2004) technological advances, the availability of cable, federal deregulation and corporate consolidation were already in place from the 1980s and 90s but the media conglomerates further assisted the development of corporations like FOX Television which refined prime time sit-coms and the commodification of the audience, they â€Å"re-imagined, and re-exploited profit maximisation† (cited in Stabile & Harrison 2004 p56). At the onset of the 90s production costs for a show like The Simpsons would have cost around $600,000 (Mallory 1996, Karlin 1993b cited in Stabile & Harrison p56) and so attention to attracting the widest demographic was crucial. Merchandising to children was the future as the cable-age children had already become consumers and so the conglomerates â€Å"turned the full force of their attention towards maximising the potential revenue streams provided by children†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Ibid pp57-59). USA Today reported in 2009 that in the previous year â€Å"Consumers worldwide spent more than $750 million on Simpsons-related licensed merchandise [†¦]† (Lieberman, 2009). Television programming is not only programming the viewer’s sets but the viewers themselves in order to sell them a product (Rushkoff 2004, p293) [†¦] which would prove why â€Å"advertisers spent $314. 8 million [in 2008] on the prime-time show on Fox and reruns that local stations air†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Lieberman, 2009). Postmodernism points toward the fact that we no longer create anything other than the texts made up from the materials which already existed and we patch them together to make fun of that which is present and now. Furthermore there is a notion of ‘it doesn’t get any better than this’ The Simpsons uses all the good bits from the past to fill the present, history is no longer being made it could be perceived. Arnold claims that The Simpsons â€Å"†¦lampoon and amplifies that culture’s foibles up to and beyond the point of absurdity† (2004 p264). Jameson is in agreement (1984 and 1991) he insists that postmodernism has a â€Å"new depthlessness† and that globalised late capitalism does not allow for the text to be critically analysed but commodified and consumed. Jameson states that â€Å"they no longer simply ‘quote,' as a Joyce or a Mahler might have done, but incorporate into their very substance† (1991 p3). Intertextual referencing is key to how The Simpsons works as a postmodern text, although legible to the avid reader of texts, a certain amount of media literacy is required which has taken many decades to achieve, leaving the adult to appreciate the intertextuality of high culture embedded in the ‘funny animation’. The timing with which The Simpsons emerged into mainstream television has proven to be crucial- The Simpsons could not have thrived on prime-time network television unless it was embraced by an audience so advanced in â€Å"TV literacy† that they are able to recognize and relish the signs and symbols from TV culture which the show continuously throws at them (Bj? rnsson 2006). In various episodes The Simpsons have portrayed many sociological concepts, for example; Aging and health in ‘Stark Raving Dad’ (1991, 7F24); Class and socioeconomic status in ‘Burns’ Heir’ (1994, 1F16); Crime law and criminal justice in ‘Homer the Vigilante’ (1F09). Homer has dealt with the urge to cheat on his wife Marge ‘The Last Temptation of Homer’ and ‘Life on The Fast Lane’ (1993, IF07 & 1990, 7G11). The horror of war was tackled in ‘The Principal and the Pauper’ (1997, 4F23) and homosexuality in ‘Homer’s Phobia’ (1997, 4F11) (The Simpsons Archive, 2010). It is this last issue of other sexual identities in The Simpsons which I will be analysing using queer theory as an analytical framework. â€Å"Queer is a category in flux† according to Raymond (2003, cited in Dines & Humez p98). Historically the term was used in a negative or derogatory manner, although most recently the term is used to identify marginalised identities such as gay, lesbian bisexual and transgender (glbt). Queer theory identifies â€Å"a body of knowledge connected to but not identical with lesbian/gay studies† (Ibid p98). According to Raymond (2003) queer theory emerged in the 1960s and 1970s and â€Å"unlike their earlier theoretical forebears like Marxism and feminism †¦ [do not demand] exclusive theoretical allegiance or hegemony (Ibid p99). Instead it asks; what is the point in asking why someone is gay? Or what is the function the question of causation serves in the culture and in ideology? † Queer theorists look less at the nature/nurture argument of Charles Darwin and in addition ask that we see the term as ‘fluid’ and not ‘fixed’. ‘Homer’s Phobia’ (1997, 4F11) looks at Homer and his homophobic behaviour when he meets and befriends a gay man John who is voiced by writer and director John Waters of the critically acclaimed and very camp film ‘Hairspray’. John sells kitsch collectibles in a shopping mall and enjoys chatting to his customers. John tries to explain to Homer what ‘camp’ means when he is showing him around the shop which Homer doesn’t understand. To explain John says that camp is â€Å"The tragically ludicrous? The ludicrously tragic? † When Homer still doesn’t get it, he adds â€Å"†¦more like inflatable furniture or Last Supper TV trays† The penny finally drops as Homer has made a connection, albeit a financial one, and replies â€Å"and that kinda stuff is worth money? †¦Man you should come over to our place †¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"It's full of valuable worthless crap†. John’s views â€Å"echoes cultural critic Andrew Ross’ argument that camp is primarily concerned with reconstituting history’s trash as reasure† (Cunningham 2003). Ross (1989) writes â€Å"The knowledge about history is the precise moment when camp takes over, because camp involves a rediscovery of history’s waste† (p151, cited in Cunningham 2003). This piece also serves to confirm Medhurst’s claim that camp â€Å"is now absolutely everywhere† (1997 p289 cited in Sullivan, p194) and so Homer has become completely blind to it. Homer has not realised John is gay even though there have been quite a few stereotypical ‘a-ha moments’ (Rushkoff, p296) or ‘knowing nods’ to his sexual identity. John has knowledge of female Hollywood actresses and gossip, an appreciation of Marge’s hair John even answers in a ‘camp’ manner with â€Å"my heart is palpitating, hoo hoo†. Marge conversely has determined John’s sexual identity and later, at home, informs Homer of it (much to his disgust). This may signal that the producers are aware of how different people have different ‘cultural capital’ (Bourdieu, 1977) or that Marge and women for that matter are more adept at reading the signals in media-represented images of sexual identities and can see the signifiers due to the time spent watching television. It may also signify the ways in which gay men have been ‘reduced’ to the status of women i. e. engaging in tittle-tattle and pointing out good hair-dos. According to Gross (1995) misinformation and gay stereotyping in the media is due to â€Å"lack of first-hand knowledge of gays and lesbians† (cited in Raymond 2003). Media texts are ‘polysemic’, meaning they have many meanings to many people, although Stuart Hall (1980) states the texts do not have an infinite number of interpretations as they â€Å"remain structured in dominance†. Nicholas Abercrombie (1996) claims that â€Å"audiences are not blank pieces of paper†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p140 cited in Hanes 2000). Reception Studies agree that the meaning is not inherent within the text itself and that the audience create the meanings using their own cultural capital. Morley’s reception study ‘Nationwide’ in 1980 will attest to this fact. In 1992 Morley revisited his ‘Nationwide’ study and found that there were â€Å"totally contradictory readings of the same programme item [†¦]†. There are many criticisms of reception theories, Morley himself states that â€Å"it shows an understanding of the micro-process of consumption†¦and without reference to the broader cultural question†¦ [which is then] of only limited value† (1992, p272). Signs of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender (glbt) identities are clearly shown in The Simpsons; in ‘Homer’s Phobia’ (1997, 4F11) Roscoe and his fellow workers at the ‘Springfield Steel Mill’ are openly gay and host ‘gay discos’ after working hours. The scene in the mill looks like a ‘guerrilla attack’ where hundreds of gay men have descended on the unsuspecting Simpsons to make them feel like the minority in the ‘queered space’. ‘Guerrilla tactics’ like ‘queering’ are seen in America where glbt people gather in an unsuspecting venue. The venue would commonly be frequented by mainly heterosexuals, the dominant sexual identity. With a flood of glbt patrons the glbt have changed their position to a dominant one within that space. This encourages the audience to see what it must feel like to be in the minority, but also highlights that there are other sexual identities, that heterosexuality is not superior and that gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender people live in your street, work in your factories, they have worthwhile jobs contributing to society just like heterosexual people. Queering’ extends to texts too as shown above and also in ‘Three Gays of the Condo’ (2003, EABF12) where Homer shared a room with Grady and Julio who were both openly gay. Glbt identities are also hidden, for example Judge Constance Harm is transgender in ‘The Parent Rap’ (2001, CABF22) the judge refers to ‘once being a man’. There are also the characters such as Waylon Smithers and Dewey Largo who are still in the closet and all of these stories offer viewers a little ‘queer pleasure’. In ‘My Fair Laddy’ Brunella Pommelhorst the gym teacher at Bart’s school tells her students she will return in the next semester as Mr Pommelhorst the new shop teacher (2006, HABF05). Marge’s sister Patty who ‘comes out’ to her in when Springfield became a same-sex-marriage tolerant town to bring in much needed revenue (after Bart brings it into disrepute). Agenda setting in the media is made accessible in The Simpsons and can be seen especially in ‘There’s Something about Marrying’ (2005, 16E10). Mayor Quimby in a speech says he is â€Å"happy to legalise gay money†¦ I mean ah gay marriage†. This may be in response to an article reported by Catherine Donaldson-Evans (2004) written for FOXNEWS. com that states â€Å"Recognizing same-sex couples and families as an emerging market, large corporations have begun targeting the demographic in their ads† [†¦] [the ads are] focused on the micro-lifestyles of the consumers, and same-sex families are a micro-lifestyle. † This clearly shows the emergent culture of commodification of sexual identity. ‘There’s Something About Marrying’ (2005 16E10) which is a clear intertextual reference to the film There’s something about Mary which itself may also be pointing out through the use of intertextuality the name given to Gay men i. e. ‘Marys’ or ‘little-Marys’) was it seems written in response to the controversy in America over gay marriages which was â€Å"a particularly hot topic in the US [at the moment] during election campaigning† (BBC 2004). In February 2004 â€Å"President Bush announced his support for a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage, saying he wants to stop activist judges from changing the definition of the â€Å"most enduring human institution† (Huus, 2004). This makes for a difficult position to be in as a queer viewer. Jacqueline Rose (1986) has noted, â€Å"The relationship between viewer and scene is always one of fracture, partial identification, pleasure and distrust† (p227 cited in Raymond, 2003, p100). The Simpsons are not subversive or anti-family, in fact they are probably quite conservative Homer attempts to vote for Democrat Barack Obama in ‘Treehouse of Horror XIX’ (S20E04, 2008) however the machine would not allow him and instead registered his vote for John McCain a Republican â€Å"in a humorous take on the allegations of voter fraud that [had] occurred in prior elections† (Stelter, 2008).

A Passover Way to Teach

An analysis of the article A Passover Way to Teach by R. Rothstein in which the author argues that the Jewish Haggadah offers an approach to learning that solves current learning problems. The paper examines the idea presented in A Passover Way to Teach that the Jewish Haggadah presents teaching methods that are more effective than the methods used in a modern education system. The paper discusses the validity of the claim by presenting the flaws and problems in the argument. The paper explains the difficulty of adopting this teaching approach to a modern education system. The major flaw is that the Haggadah refers to teaching spiritual values in the context of an ancient culture. It is not easy to apply this to modern society and to the modern classroom. Despite the claim that the Haggadah solves the problems of modern education, few real answers are provided. The major point that children should be taught according to their own needs has some benefit if the focus remains on the how of learning, but instead the author focuses on the what of learning.

Question 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Question 1 - Essay Example The electrocution was caused by faulty wiring. Edward, also a guest at the party, thought it would be amusing to dance on the garage roof. As he could not reach the roof unaided, he decided to use a radiator under the window as a step. For some time, Alice had known that the radiator was loose. The radiator collapsed under Edward’s weight and he broke his leg in the fall. Question Advice Alice and Bert, who are both, being threatened with legal claims by Delia and Edward. A Glance at the Circumstance Based on the given situation, one could say that both, Bert (the landlord) and Alice (the tenant) had committed mistakes resulting to the injuries suffered by Delia and Edward. With regard to Bert, he was the one who hired Charlie’s Electrics which presumably did not fix well the broken light switch in Alice’s kitchen as Delia was electrocuted due to faulty wiring. Alice on the other hand, is somehow guilty of what happened to Edward. Edward actually suffered a broke n leg after he tried to go to the garage roof using the radiator under a window which Alice knew to be loose. If only Alice reported the loose radiator to Bert for him to fix it, the incident could have been avoided. As far as the circumstance is concerned, it seems that Bert and Alice have failed to perform their respective obligations as the owner and tenant of the place. Analysis According to Markesinis and Deakin (1999, p.69), the element of duty is associated to the following query: â€Å"does the law recognize liability in the cited situation?† The essence of this question is related to the duty attached to a landlord as far as the given situation is concerned. Under section 4 of the Defective Premises Act 1972, the landlord is obliged to maintain or repair the premises under tenancy. He or she owes a duty to take reasonable care in all circumstances to all persons who can be affected by the defects of the premises (Defective Premises Act 1972). This is to say then that Bert, as the owner of the first floor flat which Alice rented, has the obligation to make sure that nothing in the premises is defective that might cause any harm to any tenants. To take reasonable care would mean that Bert should have conducted an inspection in Alice’s area to check if there is something defective and to fix it immediately. Since Bert did not know about the loose radiator, it can be presumed that he did not exercise reasonable care to maintain the place. To note, it is not actually essential for the tenant to notify â€Å"the landlord of the want of repair† (Clements & Fairest, 1996, p.85). Nonetheless, Bert could not be made liable to Edward’s injury because the ultimate fault is attached to Alice. As the occupier of the place, Alice has the responsibility to take care of the premises. Taking care of the premises would mean that she should not do anything that could damage the property and if she does, she will be held liable to it. Section 1 of the Occupier’s Liability Act 1984 states that the occupier of a certain premises is obliged to take good care of the people who are in his or her premises especially if he or she knows of the possible danger his or her area might have. He or she has reasonable ground to believe that a person may go to the vicinity the danger and that the corresponding risk is one which necessitates some form of protection from the occupier. To note, Alice had known of the fact that

Stem cell research and its future Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Stem cell research and its future - Essay Example It can find solutions for the devastating disease like cancer, Parkinson’s disease, diabetics, heart diseases, etc. Stem cell research is becoming a highly controversial subject at present because of the ethical and moral issues involved in it. Even though nobody has any doubt about the potential of stem cells in improving human life, plenty of sociologists, religious leaders and scholars have already questioned the logic of stem cell research. The discovery, isolation, and culturing of human embryonic stem cells will help the medical science to propose solutions to some of the serious health problems. At the same time, the killing of the embryo for the wellbeing of human is questioned by many people. Some people argue that embryonic stem cell research should be completely banned since it denies the natural right of the embryos to take birth in this world. On the other hand, supporters of embryonic stem cell research argue that embryos cannot be considered as complete human beings since the birth has not been taken place. In short, stem cell research is getting highly controversial as time goes o n. This paper analyses the future of stem cell research. According to Inou (p.2560), Neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimers’ are caused by problems in cortical neurons whereas in dementia, Lewy bodies, or frontotemporal lobar degeneration is causing the disease. Parkinson disease is caused by dopaminergic neurons whereas upper and lower motor neurons cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved its adult stem cell protocol to conduct Phase I clinical trials to treat Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s disease) and TCA Cellular Therapy. This is the second FDA-approved protocol for the treatment of ALS using stem cells in the country; and the first using adult stem cells from the same patient. The aim of the Phase I study is to assess safety of IND 13729, as a stem cell therapy for

What Is Discrimination Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

What Is Discrimination - Literature review Example A racial group means a group of people defined by their race, color, and nationality (including citizenship) ethnic or national origins. Victimization means treating someone less favorably because they have made a complaint of discrimination (a "protected act"), or are thought to have done so; or because they have supported someone else who has made a complaint of discrimination. Vivid legal responsibility is the legal basis whereby an organization may become legally liable for the acts of its employees or agents. This can apply even where the institution had no knowledge of the acts and where, if it had been aware, it would disapprove or have disapproved of the acts in question. (Andrew, 1995) Direct discrimination is when a person is treated less favorably by another in a comparable situation. For example, A40-year-old woman applies for a job and is told she cannot have the job because the company is looking for new employees in their 20s. An African couple is looking for a school for their child and is told by their local school that the child cannot go to that school because there are no non-white children there. A man applies for a job and does not get it and is told that the company does not want gay people working there. (Andrew, 1995) The west of the city is mainly occupied by black people. This means that proportionately more non-black people will be applying for the job. A facility is "open to everyone", but it is on the third floor and there is no lift. This means that people in wheelchairs cannot use the facility. A company insists that people cannot leave their desks during the day apart from toilet breaks and lunch. This means that practicing Muslims cannot work there since they cannot pray at the appointed times.(Ibid, 1995) Indirect discrimination occurs where the effect of certain requirements, conditions or practices imposed by an employer or education provider has an adverse impact disproportionately on one group or other. Indirect discrimination can also occur when a rule or condition, which is applied equally to everyone, can be met by a considerably smaller proportion of people from a particular group, the rule is to their disadvantage, and it cannot be justified on other grounds. (Alf, 1958) Â  

Bipolar Disorder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Bipolar Disorder - Essay Example Johnson, Gustavo J. Rey, Mark A. Blais, Ana Rivas-Vazquez (2002). What is really very alarming about this type of mental disorder is that a lot of people who are afflicted with bi-polar disorder are prone to suicidal thoughts. In fact, about 19% of those who suffer from this disease are exposed to lifetime risk of suicide (Rivas-Vazquez, Rafael A., Sheri L. Johnson, Gustavo J. Rey, Mark A. Blais, Ana Rivas-Vazquez (2002). You see, bi-polar is a chronic disorder meaning it keeps coming back to haunt the sufferer. Bi-poplar disorder is one of the most common chronic and severe mental disorders that often go undiagnosed and untreated for a long time. A lot of people who are suffering from this type of ailment do not even know that they bi-polar disorder and they go through life without even getting treatment for this type of disorder. In most cases, people who have bi-polar disorder are diagnosed with depression (Supplement to The Journal of Family Practice (November 2007). Because of misdiagnosis and poor treatment, many people who are suffering from this disorder has to suffer through severe bouts of mental disturbances without even getting the right type of treatment. This situation can be quite detrimental to the mental state of the patient and may lead the patient to take some drastic measures, such as suicide, to end his or her suffering. Fortunately, this situation can be prevented. Although bi-polar disorder is a complex medical illness that involves the human brain, with proper diagnosis and treatment, a person who is suffering from this type of ailment can eventually recover from a severe episode of bi-polar disorder and lead a normal life. Bi-polar disorder is more commonly known as manic depression. Based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual that most psychiatrists use to diagnose mental disorders, the most reliable

Personal Worldview Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Personal Worldview Paper - Essay Example Worldview is so much so important since it affects the preconceived notions of a person. It affects how the public think, act and move towards the society they are dwelling in. As a whole, worldview affects the culture and the way of life of the people who believed in it. Generally, worldview has a function of taking its effect towards the common mindset of the public and that it usually impose a culture and parameters for living. My nature of reality towards God is that I have been seeing him towards others. He exists in the people around me and touches their lives on a daily basis. God as whole is not a concept but a way of life, the concepts connected to the intricacies of the divine affect my view of the world. The nature of the world is good, its natural state is evil free and unstained. For me, the world has innate qualities of goodness; mainly because, it is governed by reasoning and thinking of the people living in it. That I firmly believe since reasoning is, I guess, the only one thing which separates man from savage animals and species. For me, being reasonable and having been able to think is the innate nature of humanity as compared to the other species living in the globe. Having said that, I would like to believe that the good qualities of men reside from their way of thinking and their way of using reason to do what is right and eventually separate evil from the good. Well, honestly speaking I have known about God through others, seeing God in their midst. As I was saying before, I am seeing God through the eyes of the people revolving around me, through what they do and project towards me. I experience him in my midst, which is why I can tell I have known him. Knowing God to exist in my surroundings, I discover my world. I have discovered that among people who trust God, there is goodness and truthful reality. As compared to when I have close encounters with people

Introduction to business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Introduction to business - Essay Example The business is experiencing success and is in the peak section of the business cycle (Schumpeter 235). The business has to grow further in order to continue to experience higher profits. One of the best ways of making an already successful business more successful is expansion. Expansion can take place in various ways, the business can expand by the means of integration, the business can choose to expand and integrate vertically or horizontally. The business can use the method of backward vertical integration by taking over the electronic products it is already selling and enjoy all the profits and the business can even open new outlets through internet and expand. For example: the business can franchise its services to other individuals who are running websites and selling goods and services through that website. Through this method the business will earn from sales of electronic products conducted by those companies who have purchased the franchise from the business. Schumpeter, Joseph A, and Redvers Opie.  The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Capital, Credit, Interest, and the Business Cycle. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1934.

The Effects of Lsd Essay Example for Free

The Effects of Lsd Essay LSD was first synthesized on November 16, 1938 by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at the Sandoz Laboratories in Basel, Switzerland as part of a large research program searching for medically useful ergot alkaloid derivatives. LSDs psychedelic properties were discovered 5 years later when Hofmann himself accidentally ingested an unknown quantity of the chemical. The first intentional ingestion of LSD occurred on April 19, 1943, when Hofmann ingested 250 mg of LSD. He said this would be a threshold dose based on the dosages of other ergot alkaloids. Hofmann found the effects to be much stronger than he anticipated. Sandoz Laboratories introduced LSD as a psychiatric drug in 1947. Beginning in the 1950s the US Central Intelligence Agency began a research program code named Project MKULTRA. Experiments included administering LSD to CIA employees, military personnel, doctors, other government agents, prostitutes, mentally ill patients, and members of the general public in order to study their reactions, usually without the subjects knowledge. The project was revealed in the US congressional Rockefeller Commission report in 1975. In 1963 the Sandoz patents expired on LSD. Also in 1963, the US Food and Drug Administration classified LSD as an Investigational New Drug, which meant new restrictions on medical and scientific use. [ Several figures, including Aldous Huxley, Timothy Leary, and Al Hubbard, began to advocate the consumption of LSD. LSD became central to the counterculture of the 1960s. On October 24, 1968, possession of LSD was made illegal in the United States. The last FDA approved study of LSD in patients ended in 1980, while a study in healthy volunteers was made in the late 1980s. Legally approved and regulated psychiatric use of LSD continued in Switzerland until 1993. Today, medical research is resuming around the world. Lysergic acid diethylamide, abbreviated LSD or LSD-25, also known as lysergide (INN) and colloquially as acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family, well known for its psychological effects which can include altered thinking processes, closed and open eye visuals, synesthesia, an altered sense of time and spiritual experiences, as well as for its key role in 1960s counterculture. It is used mainly as an entheogen, recreational drug, and as an agent in psychedelic therapy. LSD is non-addictive, is not known to cause brain damage, and has extremely low toxicity relative to dose. However, adverse psychiatric reactions such as anxiety, paranoia, and delusions are possible. LSD was first synthesized by Albert Hofmann in 1938 from ergotamine, a chemical derived by Arthur Stoll from ergot, a grain fungus that typically grows on rye. The short form LSD comes from its early code name LSD-25, which is an abbreviation for the German Lysergsaure-diethylamid followed by a sequential number. LSD is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and chlorine, especially in solution, though its potency may last for years if it is stored away from light and moisture at low temperature. In pure form it is a colorless, odorless, tasteless solid. LSD is typically delivered orally, usually on a substrate such as absorbent blotter paper, a sugar cube, or gelatin. In its liquid form, it can also be administered by intramuscular or intravenous injection. LSD is very potent, with 20–30 Â µg (micrograms) being the threshold dose. New experiments with LSD have started in 2009 for the first time in 40 years. Introduced by Sandoz Laboratories, with trade-name Delysid, as a drug with various psychiatric uses in 1947, LSD quickly became a therapeutic agent that appeared to show great promise. In the 1950s, officials at the U. S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) thought the drug might be applicable to mind control and chemical warfare; the agencys MKULTRA research program propagated the drug among young servicemen and students. The subsequent recreational use of the drug by youth culture in the Western world during the 1960s led to a political firestorm that resulted in its prohibition. Currently, a number of organizations—including the Beckley Foundation, MAPS, Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation—exist to fund, encourage and coordinate research into the medicinal and spiritual uses of LSD and related psychedelics. LSD can cause pupil dilation, reduced or increased appetite, and wakefulness. Other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and nonspecific, some of which may be secondary to the psychological effects of LSD. Among the reported symptoms are numbness, weakness, nausea, hypothermia or hyperthermia, elevated blood sugar, goose bumps, heart rate increase, jaw clenching, perspiration, saliva production, mucus production, sleeplessness, hyperreflexia, and tremors. Some users, including Albert Hofmann, report a strong metallic taste for the duration of the effects. LSD is not considered addictive by the medical community. Rapid tolerance build-up prevents regular use,[citation needed] and cross-tolerance has been demonstrated between LSD, mescaline[ and psilocybin. This tolerance diminishes after a few days after cessation of use and is probably caused by down regulation of 5-HT2A receptors in the brain. LSDs psychological effects (colloquially called a trip) vary greatly from person to person, depending on factors such as previous experiences, state of mind and environment, as well as dose strength. They also vary from one trip to another, and even as time pass during a single trip. An LSD trip can have long-term psych emotional effects; some users cite the LSD experience as causing significant changes in their personality and life perspective [citation needed]. Widely different effects emerge based on what Timothy Leary called set and setting; the set being the general mindset of the user, and the setting being the physical and social environment in which the drugs effects are experienced. Some psychological effects may include an experience of radiant colors, objects and surfaces appearing to ripple or breathe, colored patterns behind the closed eyelids (eidetic imagery), an altered sense of time (time seems to be stretching, repeating itself, changing speed or stopping), crawling geometric patterns overlaying walls and other objects, morphing objects, a sense that ones thoughts are spiraling into themselves, loss of a sense of identity or the ego (known as ego death), and other powerful psycho-physical reactions. Many users experience dissolution between themselves and the outside world. This unitive quality may play a role in the spiritual and religious aspects of LSD. The drug sometimes leads to disintegration or restructuring of the users historical personality and creates a mental state that some users report allows them to have more choice regarding the nature of their own personality. If the user is in a hostile or otherwise unsettling environment, or is not mentally prepared for the powerful distortions in perception and thought that the drug causes, effects are more likely to be unpleasant than if he or she is in a comfortable environment and has a relaxed, balanced and open mindset. LSD causes an altered sensory experience of senses, emotions, memories, time, and awareness for 6 to 14 hours, depending on dosage and tolerance. Generally beginning within thirty to ninety minutes after ingestion, the user may experience anything from subtle changes in perception to overwhelming cognitive shifts. Changes in auditory and visual perception are typical. Visual effects include the illusion of movement of static surfaces (walls breathing), after mage-like trails of moving objects (tracers), the appearance of moving colored geometric patterns (especially with closed eyes), an intensification of colors and brightness (sparkling), new textures on objects, blurred vision, and shape suggestibility. Users commonly report that the inanimate world appears to animate in an unexplainable way; for instance, objects that are static in three dimensions can seem to be moving relative to one or more additional spatial dimensions. Many of the basic visual effects resemble the phosphine seen after applying pressure to the eye and have also been studied under the name form constants. The auditory effects of LSD may include echo-like distortions of sounds, changes in ability to discern concurrent auditory stimuli, and a general intensification of the experience of music. Higher doses often cause intense and fundamental distortions of sensory perception such as synesthesia, the experience of additional spatial or temporal dimensions, and temporary dissociation. The potential uses of LSD end of life anxiety, alcoholism, pain, cluster headaches, spiritual, and creativity. These are the potential adverse effects: adverse drug interactions, mental disorders, and suggestibility and also psychosis.

Human Rights Records of Multinationals in Nigeria

Human Rights Records of Multinationals in Nigeria Chapter 1 Introduction From time immemorial man has depended on his environment for all his material needs. Adam and eve for instance survived with the most basic of sustenance and the story is that they lived exclusively on fruits gathered from the Garden of Eden including the forbidden one. This is a classical case of mans insatiability with just what is immediately available or sustainable. It is not necessarily greed or avarice but mans advancement, increasing needs, and quest for the unknown. The instruction to increase and multiply created new pressures for him. The few fruits he gathered from the garden could not sustain his ever-increasing family. Eden also became too small as a result of his obeying the instruction to increase and multiply, and the need to move to unknown destinations became imperative, where he ran into hostile situations such as excessive cold, heat, other various forms of inclement weather; in addition to unfriendly plant and animal life. Movement from point A to B by foot whic h was the only option available at the time must have been very painful and slow. Therefore man had to fashion out ways of transportation. This started with rafters made from such materials as papyrus, to dug- out wooden canoes for water transportation; the forerunners of our mass transport system, and a large component of mans current environmental problems. Mans development continued unabated until the industrial revolution that completely changed forever the relationship of man with his environment. The creation of the internal combustion engine could be regarded as a major landmark in mans existence on earth which has facilitated the enormous movement of man, and the reduction of the universe into the proverbial global village. It is in this quest for man to satisfy his needs and wants through modern transportation, accommodation, leisure and several other aspects of human endeavor that has led to unprecedented demand for energy. Energy in the form of wind, water, sun, fossil etc has become a preoccupation of modern life. However, one which appears to have an obviously devastating consequence on mans environment today is fossil energy the prime mover of mans various activities. The exploration, extraction and exploitation of fossil fuel have so irreversibly impacted the earth that they are considered as the major causative factors of global warming. In Nigeria the early exploration of solid minerals which started in 1903 was immediately followed by such exploration for fossil oil. The major international company that was involved in this early exploration was Shell DArcy. There is every indication that the native communities where these explorations were going on were completely unprepared for the shock of oil activities. First and foremost, there were no specific existing laws in the Nigerian system guiding such human activities and therefore any attempt at either avoiding disaster or remedying any that occurred was almost completely at the discretion of the operating company. According to the Nigerian Ministry of Solid Minerals Development, mineral exploitation in the country was largely carried out without regards to the adverse effects on the environment or the host communities. It was not until 1946 that the minerals ordinance was enacted with provisions for reclamation of mined out lands. In consequence therefore a unit; m ines land reclamation unit was established to reclaim the hundreds of abandoned mines land all over the country which were relics of the colonial mining activities. The same or far worse could be said to be the case for oil mineral exploitation. One must bear in mind that Shell DArcy was neither CARITAS nor RED CROSS. In the process of their exploration and indeed exploitation, several incidents of damage to the ecosystem had occurred and there are several unwritten stories of this great damage to the ecosystem. The first mineral act for Nigeria was actually written in 1946 *123) and from all indications it was quite defective and concentrated mainly on Solid Minerals, and what the Nigerian government saw as the revenue that would accrue to the nation. The areas dealing with environmental impact abatement occupied very limited space and importance. It is instructive to mention here that the entire minerals and mining sector which included solid minerals and crude oil mining was unde r one ministry ab initio. It was only when crude oil took precedence over solid minerals that the two were separated in the 1970s before a full- fledged Ministry of Solid Minerals development was established in 1995 which is the structure as at today. There have been several reported cases of monumental damage to the ecosystem generally and specifically to farm lands, fishing areas and other water courses in the Niger delta of Nigeria as a result of accidents or carelessness on the part of oil companies in several Niger delta areas such as Ogoni land, the current Bayelsa, Warri axis (Bob, 2005). Such devastation has consistently occurred, with the oil companies either paying lip service to such disaster abatement or actually offering very painfully limited amounts of redress to host communities. One reality is clear; because government either by omission or commission (more of commission) had not been in a position to protect the host communities; and their crying interests, we have had cases of unrest in the Niger delta area. Prominent among these unrests are the Ogoni uprising, and of recent, MEND (movement for the emancipation of the Niger delta) with their negative attendant consequences on the Nigerian nation and her economy. These cases of unrest have been extensively documented and had attracted international attention and sympathy. Much as one would say that the extant laws guiding the exploration and exploitation of crude oil in the country have undergone serious reforms, several factors outside the laws have come to further exacerbate an already difficult situation. Opinion is that while the existing laws are not extremely favorable to host community existence and indeed the entire ecosystem, other human failings in the Nigerian system have lent their weight to inflicting extensive pain on host communities of oil producing areas. The most hurting has been positively identified as â€Å"corruption†. The oil companies are 100% profit making organizations. Therefore in this system where a gift of a gold watch and a cup of coffee, could easily make a minister whose job includes enforcement of extant laws to look the other way while operating bodies break all the existing laws, these oil companies naturally found it easier to side track national laws in order to operate at maximum profit while inflicting un told pain and hardship on host communities. Objectives: The primary objective of this paper is to broadly examine the interaction between multinationals and the host countries in which they do business from a human rights perspective. For the purpose of this discourse, I will limit my case studies to three prominent multinationals in Nigeria, which are Shell, Chevron, and Exxon Mobil. As earlier stated, some of these industries present a huge number of dangers and in many cases extremely hazardous consequences for employees, inhabitants of certain communities and indeed the environment particularly their effect on flora and fauna. While some of these dangers presented may not be committed intentionally, some individuals are nevertheless made to suffer less than desirable conditions, in the hands of company security agents all of which border on human rights violations. Therefore in this paper, positive and the negative roles played by the multinationals will be examined in order to help assess their human rights records properly. As an in tegral part of this research also, extant laws, covenants and treaties if any that these multinationals have signed regarding their operations within the country will be examined, as well as the company`s operational guidelines. Organization Of Dissertation Chapter 1 is basically concerned with the introduction. For the purpose of this work however, the next chapter will give a brief overview of the country and the history of oil exploration in Nigeria as well as a discussion of the major concept which is human rights from the perspective of several scholars. Chapter 3will focus mainly on the human rights performance of these multinationals (negative and positive), beginning with their corporate social responsibility and how well they have behaved in host communities and abided by their business principles. The forth chapter then will solely be focused on the spillover effects of the activities of the multinationals and as such the reaction of the host communities and the Nigerian government in general. The fifth chapter will be the conclusions and recommendations. Research Question 1. What are the human rights records of multinationals in the oil industry in Nigeria specifically shell, chevron, and Exxon Mobil? 2. How well have these companies kept to their public statements and operating principles? Chapter 2 This chapter will give an overview of the country and a brief history of its oil exploration and exploitation in the country, vis a vis, the definition of human rights as defined by several scholars. Overview Of Nigeria Nigeria is undoubtedly the most populous nation in Africa with an estimated 140 million people. The nation comprises 36 states and one federal capital territory. Nigeria is also blessed with vast agriculture and mineral resources which include, but not limited to cocoa, cassava, coal, bauxite, tin, tantalite, iron ore, limestone, gold, many precious metals/stones, and most importantly crude oil. Despite being one of the major producers and exporters of oil in the world and also a member of the OPEC, the country has continued to experience endemic poverty and strife notwithstanding the abundance of the above mentioned. All of this can directly be linked to corruption and mismanagement of funds by the ruling elites, with billions of dollars being made each day by major multinationals in diverse joint venture agreements with the government owned Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC). Bob (2005, p.59) argues that â€Å"Nigeria`s highly centralized, notoriously corrupt and ethni cally riven political system have made it possible for the country`s leaders both military and civilian to siphon most of the revenue from oil†. This institutionalized corruption has almost always been implicated in serious cases of human rights violations. *MITCHELL. According to several authorities including the, US state department, among others, oil exploration and exploitation have often precipitated gross human rights violations, citing several cases of extrajudicial killings, torture (US*), and most of all environmental devastation which has led to the destruction of total ecosystems. Oil Exploration In Nigeria The history oil exploration in Nigeria could be dated as far back as the drilling of oil wells in Nigeria by the Nigerian bitumen company in 1903 when mining exploration activities started in Nigeria. However the first major discovery and exploration of oil was in 1956 in oloibiri village in eastern delta of Nigeria (Olorode et al, 1998, p.14). This operation was carried out by Shell DArcy now known as shell petroleum development company (SPDC, 2009). Subsequently, oil companies such as ExxonMobil, Chevron Texaco, ENI/Agip, and TotalFinaElf joined in oil exploration activities mostly in the Delta region under a joint venture agreement with state owned NNPC. The oil industry has definitely made a huge impact on the socio-economic life of Nigeria especially as one of its major sources of revenue. However oil exploration as an extractive industry has negatively impacted on the indigenous populations where oil drilling and exploration occur. Despite huge profits amassed by the oil indust ry, gross environmental devastation and degradation have routinely cropped up with little or no solution being proffered to the situation by the oil industry operatives. According to reports by the committee for the defense of human rights (CDHR), the industry has inflicted unprecedented agony on indigenous communities by completely disrupting water ways, destroying soil, water, air, animal, plant life, and generally causing massive destruction in the eco system especially on the flora and fauna (Olorode, 1998, p.15). Communities affected by oil exploration are those of the Niger delta. The Delta region is made up of a number of indigenous communities and states which include Rivers state, Delta, Bayelsa, cross river and Akwa Ibom and they account for about 80 percent of the oil and gas produced in Nigeria. The remaining 20 percent are scattered in different parts of the country such as, Imo, and Ondo *(CDHR). Apart from oil and gas, the Niger Delta is also blessed with agricultural land, creeks, forests, rivers, creeks, and coastal waters with fish and sundry marine life (Okonta and Douglas, 2000, p.33). Ironically even in the midst of these abundant natural resources, the region remains one of the poorest and most under developed in the country, with the people suffering from unimaginable diseases and a complete absence of basic facilities which include electricity, clean water, education, hospitals, housing, and good roads*. Decades of wanton mismanagement of funds and corruption have been cited as the reason for paltry GNP per capita of 280 us dollars, but the reality in the Niger delta is even far worse. A recent survey by the world bank stated that 7 in every 10 Nigerian`s live below $1 a day (*). Furthermore the area has one of the highest population densities in the world, with an estimated 3 percent growth per year, and this burgeoning population in the face of under development has been referred by Okonta and Douglas as the â€Å"human ecologists ultimate nightmare; a growing population in an attempt to survive (is) destroying the very ecosystem that should guarantee its survival† (Okonta and Douglas, 2000, p.34). Most of the suffering of the peoples of the Niger Delta could be attributed to oil companies invading their territories and paying little attention to the plight of the people, and also the ever corrupt government officials and political elites willing to accept bribes and cuts from these multinationals to remain silent. These acts of commission and omission by state functionaries have sometimes been exploited by the multinationals resulting in the brutal repression of dissenting host communities using instruments of state violence (*). Following is a reference to various definitions and concepts of human rights as elucidated by the aforementioned authorities. Human Rights â€Å"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights†. —Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) According to the United Nations declaration of human rights (UDHR), rights fall into two major categories namely civil and political rights, as well as socio-economic and cultural Rights†. (Malone, 2003, p.20). Civil and political rights which are also considered as first generation rights are argued to be those unalienable rights to which an individual is entitled. According to the UNDHR they include the right to life, right not to be tortured, right to fair hearing and judicial process. Forsythe, for instance, explained human rights to be â€Å"those fundamental moral rights of the person that are necessary for a life with human dignity.† (Forsythe, 2006, p.3) Landman (2006), defined human rights as â€Å"a set of individual and collective rights that have been formally promoted and protected through international and domestic law since the universal declaration of human rights in 1948† (p.8). Alston (2005), cited Karel Vazali`s categorization which argues that there are three generations of human rights namely, the first generation – civil and political rights, i.e. right to life and political participation. The second generation according to Alston includes economic, social and cultural rights or collectively, right to subsistence. The third generation rights which is the solidarity rights encapsulates the right to peace and most importantly for the purpose of this discourse is the right to a clean environment. There are two schools of thought with regards to environmental human rights which are enshrined in article 21 of the African charter on human and people`s rights, which argues that the right to a healthy or adequate environment, constitutes a fundamental component of human rights (African Charter on Peoples and Human Rights: Ratification and Enforcement, Act 1990). The second school of thought posits that environmental human rights are derivable from other human rights including, but not limited to the right to life, the right to health, as well as the right to property (Ibid). The whole concept of environmental rights is informed by the concept of a right to a habitable environment for the present and generations yet unborn. According to Olorode (1998, p.8), â€Å"the extractive industries constitute one of the human activities which have immediate and significant consequences on the environment†. Odu (1977) as quoted in Olorode (1998, p.8) also argued that â€Å"extractive industries may alter the ecology so completely that it cannot support agriculture or fishing† Since this treatise is primarily concerned with the human rights records of select multinational oil companies in Nigeria, relevant clauses of the Nigerian constitution on fundamental human rights are worthy of reference. Chapter four of the Nigerian constitution deals solely with fundamental human rights as enumerated in sections 33 to 46, the keynotes of which are reproduced hereunder: â€Å"33. Right to life 34. Right to dignity of the human person 35. Right to personal liberty. 36. Right to fair hearing. 37. Right to private and family life. 38. Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion 39. Right to freedom of expression and the press. 40. Right to peaceful assembly and association. 41. Right to freedom of movement. 42. Right to freedom from discrimination 43. Right to acquire and own immovable property. 44. Compulsory acquisition of property. 45. Restriction on and derogation from fundamental human rights. 46. Special jurisdiction of High Court and Legal aid† (Sections 33-46, Constitution federal republic of Nigeria (FRN) 1999) Furthermore section 20 of the same constitution provides that â€Å"the state shall protect and improve the environment and safeguard the water, air and land, forest and wildlife of Nigeria. It can therefore be argued that adequate provisions are already in place at least on paper, for the protection and enforcement of the fundamental human rights of Nigerians with particular reference to environmental rights. However, section 44(3) vests the entire property and control of all minerals, including oil and gas occurring in any land, upon or under any waters within the Nigerian territory and its exclusive economic zone on the government of the federation which shall manage these resources in the manner prescribed by the national assembly (Constitution, FRN, 1999). This constitutional provision is more often than not relied upon by the government and its institutions, sometimes allegedly at the behest of the multinational oil giants, to suppress and repress legitimate agitations by aggrieved host communities. The aggrieved host communities are usually either seeking for their fair share of the oil wealth, outright resource control, or demanding for concrete remedial measures against the sundry negative environmental impacts of oil exploration and exploitation such as gas flaring. According to reports by Osouka and Roderick (2005, p.4) Nigeria flares more gas than any country in the world, averaging a staggering 2.5 billion cubic feet of gas associated with crude oil. This they argue to be equal to 40% of all Africa`s natural gas consumption which have contributed more greenhouse gases than the entire sub Saharan Africa as a whole. They posit that â€Å"the flaring of associated gas in the niger delta is a human rights, environmental and social monstrosity† (Osouka and Roderick 2005), because the health and livelihood of the inhabitants of these communities are adversely affected by these unmitigated flares which contain a plethora of pollutants resulting in â€Å"an increased risk of premature deaths, child respiratory illnesses, asthma and cancer† Osouka and Roderick (2005, p.29). Osuoka and Roderick further reported that the commission had contended that the Nigerian government had in principle admitted complicity for this hazardous practice by stating that â€Å"there is no denying the fact that a lot of atrocities were and are still being committed by the oil companies in Ogoni land and indeed the entire niger delta area of Nigeria† (Osuoka and Roderick, 2005, p.29) Prior to the 1999 constitutional provision, the federal military government had in 1969 promulgated the petroleum decree which effectively abrogated the 1954 revenue allocation formula that provided for the equal sharing of mining revenue between the regions and the federal government (Oronto and Okonta, 2000, p.40). Furthermore decree 6 of 1975 increased the federal governments share of the oil proceeds from 50% to 80% leaving the states with only 20% (Oronto and Okonta, 2000, p.41). Oronto and Okonta further contended that a senior permanent secretary in the administration of former military head of state general Gowon had â€Å"cynically remarked in a public lecture that the people of the niger delta were most unlikely to pose any real threat to the regimes continued exploitation of their oil wealth as they were relatively few in population and thus could be easily subdued†, (Oronto and Okonta, 2000, p.41). They therefore concluded â€Å"that this is exactly what the Nigerian military junta has done beginning from the mid eighties when the people of the Niger delta began to raise their voices in protest (Oronto and Okonta, 2000, p.41). Following in the next chapter therefore is a detailed report on the activities of the select multinationals with particular reference to their corporate social responsibility (CSR), on the one hand, and their alleged collusion with the authorities to perpetrate gross human rights violations against the host communities, on the other. However business and operating principles will first of all be examined before delving into the detailed report. Chapter 3 Operating Principles â€Å"The voluntary principles on security and human rights are a unique tripartite, multi stakeholder initiative established in 2000 that introduced a set of principles to guide extractive companies in maintaining the safety and security of their operations within an operating framework that ensures respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. The voluntary principles address three main areas: risk management, interactions between companies and public security and interaction between companies and private security† Voluntary principles on security and human rights, 2000 Prior to this time, shell which was the first multinational to start exploration in Nigeria had to abide by the 1948 universal declaration of human rights which called on all, including companies to respect the rights of individuals. However there were no concrete laws in the nation at the time as regards exploration and exploitation, therefore SPDC formed its own set of principles to which it conducted its operations in 1979 (SPDC, 2003). Subsequently other multinationals in this review (Exxon Mobil, and Chevron) began their operations within the nation in 1955 and 1913 respectively with their own business principles that would guide their operations and several other treaties that they signed on to. One critical factor about their operating principles is that they appear to be similar in most of the various areas of human rights and CSR with virtually the same rules. SPDC for instance has in its portfolio a set of guiding principles apparently aimed at bringing development to the h ost communities in particular and the entire environment of its operations generally, some of which are: Sustainable development: Responsibility to the society Health, safety , and security Local communities Communication and engagement Shell argues that the above mentioned principles govern all of its operations and bodies within the country. For instance its business principles to society is â€Å"to conduct business as responsible corporate members of society, to comply with applicable laws and regulations, to support fundamental human rights in line with legitimate role of business, and to give proper regard to health, safety, and the environment†(SPDC, 2009*). Principle 5 therefore guarantees health, while one which is regarded as primary in relation to this discourse is principle 6 which states that â€Å"Shell companies aim to be good neighbours by continuously improving the ways in which we contribute directly or indirectly to the general wellbeing of the communities within which we work. We manage the social impacts of our business activities carefully and work with others to enhance the benefits to local communities, and to mitigate any negative impacts from our activities. In addition, Shell companies take a constructive interest in societal matters, directly or indirectly related to our business†. (SPDC, 2009) Similarly, ExxonMobil argues that its â€Å"standards of business conducts provide a framework for their operations responsibly, and that they abide by the United Nations Declaration of Human rights as it applies to companies, the fundamental Principles and rights at work of 1998 ILO Declaration, and are active participants of the earlier stated voluntary principles on Security and Human rights and most recently the UN global compact (*). They also argue that they â€Å"comply with all environmental laws and regulations and apply responsible standards where laws or regulations do not exist† (ExxonMobil, 2009) interesting! Chevron also like the other companies in this review abides by the UNDHR, and has adopted certain treaties and covenants such as the ILO principles and rights at work, the UN global compact, as well as its own company`s business operating principles which are all geared towards ensuring that it operates and maintains high standards in its activities in host countries/communities (*). According to the company`s principles regarding respect for human rights, it maintains that it supports universal human rights and as such condemns human rights abuses (sec 1.27,p.29). Furthermore with regards to the environment, â€Å"Corporate Policy 530 commits Chevron to comply with the letter and spirit of all environmental, health and safety laws and regulations â€Å"(sec 1.4) P.14. With this said, a full detailed report of the human rights records of the multinationals under study will be reviewed. Spdc (Shell Petroleum Development Company) Unarguably one of the biggest and profitable companies in the world, Shell first began its global operations in 1907 as an offshoot of the British owned shell transport and trading company (STTC) and the royal Dutch petroleum company of the Netherlands (Okonta and Oronto,2000. P.62). Since then, the multinational has spread its wings to virtually all countries of the world, and this giant produces oil and gas in approximately 45 countries of the world with interests in other natural resources such as zinc, uranium coal mining and a host of others in about a hundred countries (ibid P.62). â€Å"As measured by its business peers and even many of its adversaries, it is seen as an outstanding company† (Doyle, 2002. see preface). SPDC was granted its exploration license in 1938 to prospect for oil throughout Nigeria† (Okonta, Douglas, 2001, pp.37-39), and it teamed up with British Petroleum to open up the Nigerian oil Fields the first oil well being explored and drilled in Oloibiri in 1956 (ibid). On the 17th of February 1958, shell`s first official oil shipment from Oloibiri was made, producing an estimated 367,000 barrels a day. (*REVIEW SENTENCE)SPDC in its own ways has impacted positively and added value to the lives of the citizens, for example through the annual shell scholarship which is open to virtually all students in the Nigerian higher education system. Furthermore, shell was recognized as the first multinational to begin a HIV/AIDS in Nigeria intervention programme and thus this programme has reached most states in the federation*. SPDC has also sponsored several programmes such as IT and various digital learning programmes for schools in Nigeria. However for the most part, shell has built a few schools within the delta region one of which happened recently in Bayelsa state(*). In the area of compensation for environmental devastation and involvement with human rights abuse, SPDC, argues that it offers adequate clean up of the polluted environment and has compensated the best way it can (*REF). Most recently, the families of late ken Saro Wiwa and his colleagues were settled by the multinational, however it was assumed by the general public as settlement for shell`s involvement with the c ase, shell on the contrary denied, and claimed that it was a humanitarian gesture aimed at establishing a trust fund for Ogoni people (SPDC, 2009). Most recently, SPDC launched series of business radio programs towards the economic development of the Niger Delta which would also use initiatives such as LIVEWIRE, telecommunications self employment programmes among others (Yusuf, 2009, p.A4) SPDC also claims to support and finance community development initiatives in the Niger Delta outside of its tax obligations. These initiatives are reportedly in the area of small business development (SPDC, 2009, p.1). In 2008, SPDC contributed $56.8 million to the over $158.2 million statutory disbursements to the NDDC by Shell-run operations, in addition to another $25.2 million SPDC contribution to an additional $84 million investment by operations run by SPDC in various development projects (ibid,p.1). SPDC also reportedly invested $2.25 Million in partnership with USAID Nigeria and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture in an $11.3 million project to develop cassava farming over a five year period. More than 3,200 farmers were said to have received training under this programme (ibid, p.2). However, it is generally believed that the exploitation and devastation of land of the people of the Niger delta began with the first discovery of crude in Oloibiri village in the Delta region of the then Eastern Nigeria in 1956. For the records, there was a 50-50 profit sharing agreement put in place by the Nigerian government and multinational oil companies at the time shortly before Nigeria gained its independence from the British in 1960. Amidst all of this Nigeria had a series of changed governments including several military coups which gave room for corruption. Presently, shell accounts for about 50 percent of oil production in the country the bulk of it in the Niger Delta with the attendant gas flaring, oil spillage, illegal building of canals and waste dumping that has brought the human ecosystem of the Delta area to a near-total collapse, destroying farmland, economic crops and fishing creeks*. While this degree of devastation, poverty, disease, loss of lives and property occurs in this area, unfortunately shell despite many covenants and treaties it has ratified on corporate re